Main image: View on the Dutch trade base on Deshima, circa 1890, Leiden University Libraries (shelf no. KITLV 36D536)

Since 2006, CAMERA JAPAN has been an annual celebration of Japanese culture, taking place each autumn in Rotterdam. This year, the festival runs from September 24–28. While rooted in contemporary Japanese cinema, its scope extends far beyond film—embracing visual arts, music, dance, fashion, architecture, cuisine, and more. From October 2–5, a specially curated weekend program also travels to Amsterdam, offering Dutch audiences a unique glimpse into the richness and diversity of Japanese creativity.

CAMERA JAPAN exemplifies the enduring interest in Japanese culture and the unique historical and cultural ties between Japan and the Netherlands—a connection also mirrored in Delft faience. In this month’s article, we explore the historical relationship between the two countries and the artistic exchanges that took place, which, among other outcomes, led to the creation of the first overglaze-enameled Delftware.

As early as the late sixteenth century, the Netherlands was familiar with Japanese culture through the Dutchman Jan Huygen van Linschoten (1563–1611), a merchant, explorer, administrator, and writer (Fig. 1). He became renowned for copying secret Portuguese nautical charts, which laid the foundation for the successful Dutch maritime routes to Asia.¹ His greatest fame came from his 1596 book Itinerario, Voyage ofte schipvaert in which—drawing largely on Portuguese accounts—he offered a detailed depiction of Asian cultures, botany, and geography.

Although Japan was still relatively accessible to foreigners at the time, Van Linschoten never visited the country himself.² The first actual Dutch encounter with Japan occurred in 1600, when the Dutch ship De Liefde (The Love) arrived in the harbor of Hirado. De Liefde was the only one of an expedition of five ships that reached its final destination, Japan.³ Soon afterward, in 1603, the Japanese shogun decided to close the country to most foreigners, ushering in the Sakoku period—literally “closed country.”⁴ This policy aimed to protect Japan from colonialism, military invasions, Christianity, disease, and foreign cultural influences.⁵

The Dutch were the only Western nation allowed to trade with Japan, and even then, only under strict supervision. This unique position was granted to the Dutch because they were not concerned with spreading religion but focused solely on trade. At the same time, their introduction of technological and scientific knowledge proved invaluable, fostering what came to be known as rangaku—‘Dutch Studies’—which shaped Japanese engagement with Western learning. Initially conducted from the port of Hirado, Dutch activities were further restricted under Sakoku and relocated to Deshima, an artificial island in Nagasaki Bay. Communication with Japanese officials occurred exclusively through interpreters and some officials from Nagasaki.⁶

The main export products from Japan were camphor, ginger, copper, and tea. Decorative arts played only a modest role in the official trade, but sailors were permitted to bring their own goods, often focusing on curiosities for private trade. Porcelain production in Japan began only in 1616, when a Korean potter discovered deposits of kaolin—the essential ingredient for porcelain—in the region.⁷ Before this, Japan ordered porcelain from China—primarily for the tea ceremony, known as ko-so-metsuke, decorated in underglaze blue and Aka-e, a polychrome enameled porcelain.⁸

After 1645, when the supply of Chinese porcelain to Japan and the West declined sharply, demand for porcelain from the town of Arita rose substantially. Production was further boosted around 1655, when the Dutch East India Company (VOC) began purchasing porcelain from local kilns.⁹ At first, this mainly blue-and-white Japanese porcelain was intended for use in Batavia or for trade within Asia, but later shipments to Europe were organized. In 1659, the first major shipment to the Netherlands was dispatched via Batavia, comprising 2,045 pieces of polychrome porcelain—more than one third of the total porcelain cargo.¹⁰ This was a calculated move, reflecting the high expectations for its success.¹¹

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Although exported in relatively small quantities compared to Chinese porcelain, the arrival of Japanese polychrome porcelain in the Dutch market marked an important turning point in the decoration of Delftware.¹² Arita potters produced both blue-and-white wares and pieces with brightly colored enamels applied over the glaze. Between 1660 and 1670, vividly decorated Imari and Kakiemon wares began arriving in the Netherlands (Figs. 2 and 3). Kakiemon porcelain is characterized by delicate, asymmetrical designs painted in soft yet vivid overglaze enamels—typically iron red, turquoise, yellow, blue and Gold—set against a pure milky-white background. Imari ware, by contrast, features bolder, denser decoration, often with deep cobalt blue underglaze combined with rich overglaze colors such as iron red and gold. These pieces quickly became highly sought after in Western markets, fetching high prices and inspiring Delft potters to imitate their designs.

When vividly decorated Japanese porcelain reached the Netherlands, Delft potters began experimenting with enameling faience, employing muffle kilns. These specialized kilns, firing at lower temperatures (around 600°C/1112°F), enabled the application of overglaze colors that could not withstand the higher firing temperatures of underglaze decoration (around 1000°C/1832°F). This technique later became known as petit-feu.

The technique used by Japanese potters to produce overglaze blue decoration was long believed to have originated in China. However, scientific analysis of shards from the Arita kilns has revealed that its true origin lies in Europe.¹³ Remarkably, Japanese artisans had been applying this method in general since the late sixteenth century, and by the 1640s they were using it on porcelain—well before it appeared at the Jingdezhen kilns around 1700.¹⁴ The technique reached China through artists trained in Japan by the Italian Jesuit painter Giovanni Cola, around the same time it emerged in Japan.¹⁵ Civil unrest in China may have delayed its local development.

Archival documents provide valuable insights into the emergence of this practice in Delft. An act of the Saint Luke’s Guild from 1696 confirms that gold decoration was already being carried out, employing special kilns.¹⁶ The act further notes that this technique had been in use “for many years” prior, though the precise duration remains uncertain.

It was likely the Delft pottery painter Jeremias Thomasz. Godtlingh (1642–1703) who first introduced overglaze enamel colors on Delftware.¹⁷ Born in Amsterdam, Godtlingh trained under Passchier Hendriksz. van Ronshuizen, who maintained a pottery in the Anjelierstraat.¹⁸ There is no evidence he was already engaged with enamel painting at that time. In the 1660s, he worked at the “De Roos” (The Rose) factory in Delft.¹⁹ Although he accepted a position in a new ceramic workshop in Paris in 1667, but he never took up the post, returning instead to Amsterdam. Whether he was active in the pottery industry there remains uncertain. It has been suggested he learned enamel painting either in an Amsterdam stained-glass workshop or from local metal enamelers, but this remains speculative.²⁰

That Godtlingh possessed highly specialized knowledge and played a central role in the development of polychrome, overglaze-decorated Delftware is beyond doubt. In 1688, Godtlingh and Wilhelm van der Lidt established a faience factory in The Hague.²¹ Due to lack of funding, it likely started operating in 1689. A notarial act dated 25 February 1692 documents that they owned a pottery in The Hague where, in strict secrecy, they practiced their newly invented technique of painting in red and gold, along with other enamel colors.²² Although presented as “their” invention, it seems Godtlingh was the true inventor. He created the enamel paints, executed the painting, made design drawings, and managed the workshop, while Van der Lidt acted as factor—a commercial agent responsible for business contacts.²³

Before his work in The Hague, Godtlingh was involved with the Delft factory “Het Moriaanshooft.” It was here—opposite his own house²⁴—that the earliest known marked examples of overglaze polychrome Delftware were produced, based on Japanese Kakiemon porcelain (Fig. 4). Although these pieces bear the initials “IW” (for Jacob Wemmertsz. Hoppesteyn, co-owner from 1659–1664 and full owner afterwards until his death in 1671), it is improbable they were made during his lifetime. More likely, they were created by Godtlingh, under the direction of Jacob’s widow, Jannetge Claesdr. van Straten, owner from 1671–1686. She appears to have continued or initiated using the IW mark, referring to her husband’s initials.²⁵

During the directorship of Rochus Hoppesteyn (1686–1692), at least since 1689 when Godtlingh was active in The Hague, enamel painting was outsourced to his new factory, suggesting no other enamel painters were available.²⁶ Although the Hague factory closed in 1701, Godtlingh had already returned to Delft in 1693, where he joined “De Grieksche A.”²⁷ Despite a contract forbidding him from revealing the enamel-painting secret outside the company, objects decorated in petit-feu coloring were made at “De Grieksche A” during his tenure.²⁸ It is possible that Adrianus Kocx, owner of De Grieksche A from 1686 through 1701, released him from the failing Hague enterprise with the intention of employing petit-feu at his own factory in Delft.²⁹

That the technique continued to develop is demonstrated by the history of De Grieksche A. In 1701 Pieter Kocx succeeded his father Adrianus as owner of the factory, a position he held until his death in 1703. His widow, Johanna van der Heul, then took over ownership and managed the workshop until 1722. In 1713 she contracted four gold-painters to replace the earlier ones, underscoring the factory’s ongoing pursuit of innovation.³⁰

Among them was Adriaan (Ary) van Rijsselbergh (1681–1735), described as a master gold painter. Several objects survive in the Kakiemon and Imari palette, marked AR (for Van Rijsselbergh) and APK/PAK (for Pieter Kocx or Johanna van der Heul, possibly painted by Van Rijsselbergh) (Figs. 5 and 6). It remains unclear whether Rijsselbergh marked with AR during his contract with De Grieksche A, or as independent gold painter. Neither is it known if Godtlingh’s work bore any marks. Under Jacob van der Kool, who owned De Grieksche A from 1722 to 1733, and later under his widow Cornelia, who owned the factory until 1757, the factory continued to produce Japanese-inspired petit-feu wares.

Another pottery noted for petit-feu was “De Drie Porseleine Flessies,” directed by Willem van der Kool (1702–1716), then by his widow Anna Maria Schrevelius until 1745 (Fig. 7). Its quality equaled that of “De Grieksche A” under Jacob van der Kool (1722–1758). Likewise, “De Drie Posteleyne Astonne,” directed by Zacharias Dextra (1722–1759), employed skilled gold painters, though Japanese inspiration gradually gave way to others.

During the second half of the eighteenth century, petit-feu remained in use, but Delft potters increasingly drew inspiration from Chinese famille rose porcelain, as well as Meissen. As a technically demanding and costly process, petit-feu was reserved for luxury wares. Nevertheless, a substantial number of high-quality early overglaze-enameled objects survive, tangible reminders of Dutch–Japanese ties and the innovations they fostered in Delftware.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

NOTES

1. Vila-Santa, N. Jan Huygen van Linschoten and the Reys-gheschrift: Updating Iberian science for the Dutch expansion. Historical Research 94, no. 266 (2021): p. 736
2. Vila-Santa, 2021, pp. 741–742.
3. Het Scheepvaartmuseum. Japan en de Liefde. Gepubliceerd 25 februari 2011.
4. Alam, A. Seclusion of Japan in Tokugawa period: Reasons, advantages & disadvantages. 2023, p. 1.
5. Alam, 2023, pp. 1–6.
6. Van Rappard-Boon, Ch. Imitatie en inspiratie: Japanse invloed op Nederlandse kunst. Amsterdam/Tokyo, 1991, p. 15.
7. Wu, Y., & Wu, D. Research on the development of Japanese ceramics. International Journal of History and Cultural Studies 3, no. 4 (2017): p. 1.
8. Jörg, C. J. A. Oosters porselein: Delfts aardewerk, wisselwerkingen. Groningen, 1983, p. 9.
9. Jörg, 1983, p. 9.
10. Jörg, C. J. A. Chinese ceramics in the collection of the Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam: The Ming and Qing dynasties. Leiden, 2014, p. 140.
11. Jörg, 1983, p. 9.
12. Jörg, 2014, p. 139.
13. Montanari, R., Picon, M., Colomban, P., D’Amico, M., & Dorigato, A. The origin of overglaze-blue enameling in Japan: New discoveries and a reassessment. Journal of Cultural Heritage 37 (2018): p. 1.
14. Ibidem.
15. Montanari, R., Colomban, P., Alberghina, M. F., Schiavone, S., & Pelosi, C. European smalt in 17th-century Japan: Porcelain decoration and sacred art. Heritage 7, no. 6 (2024): 3080–3095, p. 13.
16. Van Aken-Fehmers, M. Delfts aardewerk: Geschiedenis van een nationaal product. Zwolle, 1999, p. 202.
17. Ressing-Wolfert, J. Jeremias Godtling, een vindingrijk plateelschilder uit de zeventiende eeuw. Vormen uit Vuur 166 (1999): p. 17.
18. Hoekstra-Klein, W. De Roos 1661–1854. Part 15, 2007, p. 82.
19. Boreel, R. “‘De konst van het goud te schilderen’: Delfts aardewerk in de klein-vuurtechniek.” Vormen uit Vuur 146 (1992): p. 18.
20. Van Dam, J. D. Delftware: History of a national product. Zwolle/Amsterdam, 2004, p. 69.
21. Feestbundel Dr. Abraham Bredius. The Hague, 1915, p. 39.
22. Servaas van Rooyen, A. J. Catalogus der geschied- en oudheidkundige voorwerpen van het Gemeente-Museum van ’s-Gravenhage. ’s-Gravenhage, 1893, p. 59.
23. Bredius, 1915, p. 43.
24. Bredius, 1915, p. 42.
25. Ressing-Wolfert, J., & Van Dam, J. D. Vroege petit-feu decoraties in Delft. Vormen uit Vuur 179 (2002): p. 33.
26. Ibidem.
27. Ressing-Wolfert & Van Dam, 2002, p. 34.
28. Boreel, 1992, p. 18.
29. Ressing-Wolfert & Van Dam, 2002, p. 34.
30. Van Aken-Fehmers, 1999, p. 69.

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Boreel, R. 1992. “De konst van het goud te schilderen”: Delfts aardewerk in de klein-vuurtechniek. Vormen uit Vuur, 146, 18–25.

Bredius, A. (Ed.). 1915. Feestbundel Dr. Abraham Bredius. The Hague: Nijhoff.

Het Scheepvaartmuseum. 2011, February 25. Japan en de Liefde. https://www.hetscheepvaartmuseum.nl/

Hoekstra-Klein, W. 2007. De Roos 1661–1854. Part 15. Delft.

Jörg, C. J. A. 1983. Oosters porselein: Delfts aardewerk, wisselwerkingen. Groningen: Groninger Museum.

Jörg, C. J. A. 2014. Chinese ceramics in the collection of the Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam: The Ming and Qing dynasties. Leiden: Brill.

Montanari, R., Colomban, P., Alberghina, M. F., Schiavone, S., & Pelosi, C. 2024. European smalt in 17th-century Japan: Porcelain decoration and sacred art. Heritage, 7(6), 3080–3099. https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage7060145

Montanari, R., Picon, M., Colomban, P., D’Amico, M., & Dorigato, A. 2018. The origin of overglaze-blue enameling in Japan: New discoveries and a reassessment. Journal of Cultural Heritage, 37, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.culher.2018.11.008

Ressing-Wolfert, J. 1999. Jeremias Godtling, een vindingrijk plateelschilder uit de zeventiende eeuw. Vormen uit Vuur, 166, 17–28.

Ressing-Wolfert, J., & Van Dam, J. D. 2002. Vroege petit-feu decoraties in Delft. Vormen uit Vuur, 179, 33–34.

Servaas van Rooyen, A. 1893. Catalogus der geschied- en oudheidkundige voorwerpen van het Gemeente-Museum van ’s-Gravenhage. ’s-Gravenhage: Gemeentemuseum.

Van Aken-Fehmers, M. 1999. Delfts aardewerk: Geschiedenis van een nationaal product. Zwolle: Waanders.

Van Dam, J. D. 2004. Delftware: History of a national product. Zwolle/Amsterdam: Waanders.

Van Rappard-Boon, C. 1991. Imitatie en inspiratie: Japanse invloed op Nederlandse kunst. Amsterdam: Rijksmuseum / Tokyo: Suntory Museum of Art.

Vila-Santa, N. 2021. Jan Huygen van Linschoten and the Reys-gheschrift: Updating Iberian science for the Dutch expansion. Historical Research, 94(266), 736–757. https://doi.org/10.1093/hisres/htab025

Wu, Y., & Wu, D. 2017. Research on the development of Japanese ceramics. International Journal of History and Cultural Studies, 3(4), 1–8.